The Andhra Agric. J 65 (3): 504-518, 2018

Journal

Since 1954

Dryland Agriculture in India

- Status and the Way Forward

Often the terms ‘drylands’ and ‘rainfed regions’

are used synonymously. Though they overlap to a large

extent, dryland area is a piece of agricultural land having

no source of irrigation including groundwater. Dryland

Agriculture is defined as cultivation of crop entirely

with rainwater received during the crop season or stored/

conserved soil moisture or supplemented with harvested

rainwater. Time and again the crop experiences mild to

very severe moisture stress during cropping period in

dryland areas. Drylands are characterized by having)

limited rainfall up to 1000 mm; ii) shortage of moisture

availability; iii) growing season of less than 200 days;iv)

single crop or intercropping system, and v) constraints

of water and wind erosion.

There is no single agreed definition of the term

drylands. Two of the most widely accepted definitions

are those of FAO and the United Nations Convention

to Combat Desertification (UNCCD, 1994). FAO has

defined drylands as those areas with a length of growing

period (LGP) of 1-179 days (FAO, 2000); this includes

regions classified climatically as arid, semi-arid and dry

sub-humid. The UNCCD classification employs a ratio

of annual precipitation to potential evapotranspiration

(P/PET). UNCCD (United Nations Convention to

Combat Desertification) defines drylands based on

aridity index (la) computed as ratio of mean annual

precipitation (P) to m ean annual potential

evapotranspiration (PET). Accordingly, areas with arid

(Ia=0.05-0.20), semi-arid (Ia=0.20-0.50) and dry sub-

humid (Ia=0.50-0.65) climates are termed as drylands

(UNCCD, 1994). While about 40 percent of the world’s

total land area is considered to be drylands (according

to the UNCCD classification system), the extent of

drylands in various regions ranges from about 20 to

90%.Raju et al. (2014) computed aridity index using

the district level annual rainfall and PET data for years

1971-2005 and identified districts in India having

dryland climates. Net sown area (mostly average of

two years: 2007-08,2008-09) of districts with dryland

climates adds up to 85 m ha (approximate). A map

showing dryland districts is furnished as Fig. 1.

Drought Prone Districts in India - Revisited

As per UNCCD criteria some of the districts

of Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh states which

are part of Indo-Genetic belt fall under dryland climate.

However moisture inadequacy is not very acute in these

Dr. K. Sammi Reddy

Director (Acting), ICAR - CRIDA, Hyderabad

Email: ksreddy_iiss39@yahoo.com;

director.crida@icar.gov.in

Dr. Sammi Reddy was Bom in Sriramulapally,

Carimnagar, India on 12 October 1965. Educated at

Zhlla Parishad High School, Gopalpur, 1980-81;

Government Junior College, Hanamkonda, 1981-83;

A.P Agricultural University, B. Sc (Ag) 1983-87,

VI. Sc (Ag) 1987-89; Indian Agricultural Research

nstitute, New Delhi, Ph. D. 1995-98

He joined as Scientific Assistant, National

demote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad, 1990-91; Scientist

rainee, NAARM, Hyderabad, 1991-92; Scientist, 1992-

?8, Scientist (Senior Scale), 1998-2000, Senior

Scientist, 2000-08, and Principal Scientist, 2008-12,

ndian Institute of Soil Science, Bhopal; Principal

Scientist, Central Research Institute for Dryland

Agriculture, Hyderabad, 2012-13; Head, Division of

Resource Management, Central Research Institute for

Dryland Agriculture, Hyderabad, 2014 -17.

Dr. K. Sammi Reddy received Dhiru Morarji

Memorial Award of FAI, 1995 and 2005; PPIC-FAI

Award, 1997; Golden Jubilee Commemoration Young

Scientist Award of ISSS, 2002; IMPHOS-FAI Award,

2003; TSI-FAI Award, 2006; FAI Golden Jubilee Award

for Excellence, 2008 and 2013; National Academy of

Agricultural Sciences (NAAS) Associate Fellow, 2006-

10; Hari Om Ashram Trust Award of ICAR, 2008-09;

Best Paper Presentation Award of ISSS, 2011; 12th

nternational Congress of Soil Science Commemoration

Award of ISSS, 2013.

Fellow of the National Academy of Agricultural

Sciences (NAAS), New Delhi; Fellow of the Indian

Society of Soil Science, New Delhi.

2018

Dryland Agricultural in India

505

districts due to assured sources of irrigation. Irrigation

helps in bringing stability in production of crops and

livestock. In view of this a technical committee

constituted by MoRD in 1993 under the chairmanship

Prof. C.H. Hanumantha Rao to review the Drought

Prone Area Program m e (DPAP) and D esert

Development Programme (DDP) developed a criterion

based on moisture index and share of net irrigated area

to net sown area to identify districts to be covered

under DDP and DPAP (MoRD, 1994). Moisture index

is computed as (P-PET)/PET. According to this

criterion, the districts where arid ecosystem exists

(moisture index value less than-66.7) and net irrigated

area is not more than 50% were eligible to be covered

under DDP. The districts with semi-arid ecosystem

(with moisture index range -66.7 to —33.3) and net

irrigated area not more than 40% were made eligible

for coverage under DPAP. The districts with dry sub-

humid ecosystem and net irrigated area not more than

30% were also made elible for coverage under DPAP.

Average irrigation statistics (mostly 2007-08 and 2008-

09) and moisture index based climate assessed by Raju

el al. (2013) based on recent data sets were employed

in the dual criteria and eligibility of districts to DPAP /

DDP was evaluated (Venkateswarlu etal., 2014). The

map showing the districts eligible for DPAP and DDP

is furnished as Fig 2. There are 22 districts eligible for

DDP and 121 districts eligible for DPAP totaling 143

districts.

Fig 2. Districts eligible for DPAP and DDP

Dryland Agriculture Production Systems

Dryland agriculture production systems in the

country are diverse and heterogeneous. They are

grouped in to five classes viz. i) Rainfed rice production

system; ii) Coarse nutritious cereal based production

system; ii) Oilseed based production system; iv) Pulse

based production system and v) Cotton based

production system.

Though these crops require relatively less water,

they present much bigger problems addressing some

of which is beyond the realm of any single stakeholder

organization. For example, coarse cereals suffer an

eroding demand because of reasons such as changing

food habits, government policies related to input

subsidies, food supply and procurement. Similarly,

pulses are not so breeding-friendly in the sense that

genetic improvement for higher yields is more difficult

compared to crops such as rice and wheat. The

difficulty in breaking the yield barriers in case of pulse

crops is reflected in the rate of growth in yield during

the last four decades. Crops such as pigeonpea, castor

and cotton are essentially long duration crops and hence

are more prone to moisture stress during the later stages

of crop growth and are also sometimes subjected to

heavy rains during and after flowering resulting in

considerable yield losses. Tons

This sector currently produces 40% of the food

grains and supports two-thirds of the live stock

population. Despite increase in average productivity

levels from 0.6 tonnes in the eighties to 1.1 tonnes at

present, large yield gaps exist in several crops and

regions between research stations and farmer’s fields.

506

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AAJ65

Dryalnd Agriculture Research: History

The Green Revolution in mid-sixties, though a

boon to Indian agriculture, ushered in era of wide

disparity between productivity of irrigated and rainfed

agriculture. Alarmed by such a situation, during Fourth

Plan (1969-74), the emphasis was to focus attention

on hither to neglected farmers of the dryland regions

to participate m eaningfully in the agricultural

development process. This socio-economic imbalance

led to a serious rethinking and a comprehensive network

research program was initiated to stabilize the

performance of the then introduced hybrids of coarse

cereals in rainfed/dryland region and to moderate the

periodic drought related adverse impact on total

agricultural productivity. Further, droughts of mid-sixties

catalyzed the Govt, to invest on dryland research

significantly. Inl970 the ICAR launched All India

Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture

(AICRPDA) at Hyderabad, in collaboration with the

Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)

with 23 centers and Co-coordinating Cell at Hyderabad.

CRIDA was established during 1985 by upgrading

the All India Coordinated Research Proj ect for Dryland

Agriculture (AICRPDA), Hyderabad centre to work

on development of suitable technologies to enhance

the productivity in rainfed areas. CRIDA, along with

two All India Coordinated Research Projects namely

on Dryland Agriculture and Agrometeorology with about

25 centers each located in different parts of the country,

strives towards development and popularization of

location specific rainfed technologies for productivity

enhancement.

The systematic research in dryland agriculture

was initiated by ICAR in 1970 with start of All India

Coordinated Research Project for Dryland Agriculture

(AICRPDA) in collaboration w ith Canadian

International Development Agency (CIDA) and

AICRPDA-CIDA collaboration was in three phases

i.e.1970-75,1976-82 and 1982-87. During 1970-1987,

the sound foundations of systematic and location-

specific research were laid out across AICRPDA centers.

The location specificity of the technology was

emphasized with “low monetary input”, i.e. the basic

crop production practices like time of seeding and plant

population-geometry in relation to rainfall, and weed

management, crop substitution and cropping systems

as a necessary input for improved production. The

emphasis on intercropping research was to identify the

regions where intercropping was feasible and

worthwhile to increase in cropping intensity and

secondly, to compare the productivity and stability of

intercropping versus monocropping in agro climatic-

regions where only a single crop is feasible in a year.

The research strategy for each region consisted of

screening of different crops for compatibility in

intercropping systems, modifying planting patterns, such

as paired row planting, identifying optimum row ratios

for efficient moisture and nutrient utilization by

component crops, identifying the best cultivars for the

component crops and determining the optimum N and

P doses for intercropping systems. The significant area

identified was tailoring the technology to the aberrant

weather situations. The focus on rainwater management

research was on identifying efficient methods for crop

life saving irrigation, in situ moisture conservation by

tillage, continued focus on identifying efficient crops

and cropping systems, crop husbandry for weather

aberrations and alternate or multiple land use. The

research

continued on intercropping and double

cropping could ensure stable optimal yields and

maximize profits in relation to agro climatic resources,

with further refinem ent of the systems through

identification of genotypes, manipulation of sowing and

harvesting dates and plant populations and fertilizer use.

The pulses and oilseeds formed important components

of the cropping systems research (AICRPDA, 2003).

The dryland research amply demonstrated that

yield of dry land crops could be increased by at least

100% with improved varieties and sowing methods and

higher yields with advancement of sowing dates,

particularly post rainy period in Deccan region,

minimizing the risk with split application of N, and

alternate crops for aberrant weather situations. Dry

seeding is recommended for the locations/soil types

where the conditions (soil) do not permit sowing

operations with the onset of monsoon. Across the

AICRPDA centers, probable and efficient crop growing

periods were established based on rainfall, potential

evapotranspiration and water retaining capacity of soils.

K aolin was identified as the m ost effective

antitranspirant for controlling the transpiration losses

of barley and sorghum. In black soils regions, with 500

to 1000 nun rainfall, the productivity of upland rainy

season crops could be substantially improved by

providing furrows graded to 0.2 to 0.3 % slope, to

transmit excess rainwater. Another milestone in dryland

research was refinement of cropping system technology

i.e. in case of rainy season crops, choice of crops and

varieties could be decided by the rainfall pattern and

length of effective growing season, however in post-

rainy season crops grown on conserved soil moisture,

the available soil moisture in the profile at the sowing

time decided choice of crops. With the advent of high

yielding and input responsive varieties to suit different

situations, the agriculture became more ‘Production

oriented’.

The concepts of off-season tillage, and life

saving irrigation with harvested rainwater for better crop

2018

Dryland Agricultural in India

507

production were established. In chronic drought prone

areas, deep tillage (20-30 cm) was found specifically

applicable to soils having textural profiles or hard pans.

Under uni-modal (<500 mm) rainfall situation in semi

arid regions with shallow Alfisols, sowing across the

slope and ridging later was useful. In black soils, deep

tillage alone was of no avail. Tillage combined with

compartmental bunding was found to be a most

effective soil management practice for Vertic Incept

sols. With rainy season cropped Vertisols (unimodal

rainfall regions), water surplussing is an integral part of

in situ moisture conservation, hi bi-modal medium (500-

750 mm) rainfall representing semi-arid Alfisol, graded

border strips were found advantageous. Surface

mulching with crop residues like sorghum and maize

stubbles, dry grass, wheat straw and pigeonpea stalk

prevented moisture loss and prolong the moisture

retention period and enhanced yield of crops. The year-

round tillage as a means of control of weeds and

conserve soil moisture was crystallized into a concept

of great significance to dry lands. Deep tillage increased

the yields of crops across the climates and soil types.

The ridges and furrows always increased the yield,

however with more effectiveness during moderate

drought (AICRPDA, 2003).

The research on intercropping systems (ICSs)

suggested that additive series was most successful with

base crops as sorghum, maize, pearl millet, pigeonpea,

safflower and wheat, wherein the land equivalent ratios

(LERs) of the additive series were greater (with average

of 23% more) than replacement series with multiple

benefits of higher output and returns, spread labour

peaks, maintenance of soil fertility (with inclusion of

legume ) and stability in production. Intercropping of

fast growing legumes like cowpea and greengram as

cover crops benefitted the base crop in better resource

efficiency. The performance of the ICSs were strongly

correlated with the amount of seasonal rainfall, when

it was the above normal, optimum productivity was

achieved; under normal rainfall conditions, fairly high

values of land equivalent ratios were achieved; and

under low rainfall conditions, one of the two crops

reasonably yielded providing an insurance against the

risk due to w eather aberrations.

Stable and

economically viable double and intercropping systems

were evolved with predominant crops of the region as

base crops and pulses and oilseeds as intercrops for

various rainfall and soil type regions with potentials of

higher productivity, income and high land and resource

use efficiency over time and space that increased

cropping intensity to 150 to 200%. Several crops were

screened for intercropping systems across the country.

Pigeonpea either as base crop or intercrop performed

better, particularly in sorghum, cotton and pearl millet

based intercropping systems (AICPRDA, 2003).

Crop substitution concept was evolved in

which the performance of various new crops was

evaluated vis-a-vis traditional crops, for e.g. in Vertisols

of Bellary, sorghum was efficient than cotton. The

cropping intensity could be increased considerably

depending on the soil types and moisture availability

period. However, the duration of the crop cultivars

influenced the selection of a cropping system. Hence,

the research in this area clearly brought out that in the

high rainfall dryland (> 1000 mm) regions of Orissa,

and eastern Madhya Pradesh, a second crop could be

grown in the residual moisture after a 90 days duration

variety of upland rice than 120 days duration, similarly

in the Vertisols of Vidarbha (Maharashtra), a change

of 140 or 150 days sorghums to about 90 or 100 days

cultivars provided an opportunity to grow chickpea or

safflower in sequence. Double cropping was possible

only in areas receiving more than 750 mm rainfall with

a soil moisture storage capacity of more than 200 mm.

Another significant contribution of agronomic research

was the identification of the most compatible genotypes

of the component crops of the system for a higher

system’s productivity.

The experiments on alternate land use systems

(ALUS) for arable and marginal lands were initiated at

AICRPDA in 1981. Leucaenalecocephala based forage

alley cropping system was developed at Hyderabad with

the multiple objectives like forage, forage- cum-mulch,

and forage-cum-poles. The ALUSs developed were tree

farming, ley farming (Stylosantheshamata with sorghum

rotation), silivipasture (Leucaenaleucocephala +

Stylosantheshamata + Cenchrusciliaris) agro­

horticulture (guava/custard apple/pomegranate/ber

based). Leucaenaleucocephala is the most popular tree

species to serve as hedge-row in the alley cropping

system . Studies at AICRPDA

revealed that

Dicanthium, Sehima and Lasiurus are suitable for

severe drought prone areas while Cenchrusciliaris,

Panicum maximum and Urochloa were for moderate

drought prone areas. Stylosanthushamata, a pasture

legume, was identified for improvement of soil fertility

and as quality fodder for alfisols of Hyderabad.

During 1972-73, large scale scarcity of rainfall

was experienced all over the country, particularly in

the scarcity region of Maharashtra, Karnataka

and

Andhra Pradesh. Roving seminars were organized by

the ICAR at different locations, at the end of which

new phrases were coined viz. contingent crop planning

and mid-season correction. As a follow up, dry land

centers collected data on these two aspects and after

analysis of weather data for the past 100 years, listed

the weather aberrations: i) delayed onset of monsoon;

ii) early withdrawal o f monsoon; iii) intermittent dry

spells o f various durations; iv) prolonged dry> spells

causing changes in the strategy ; and v) prolonged

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AAJ65

monsoon. Scientists at Solapur, Bijapur, and Hyderabad

worked on these aspects and developed Contingent

crop planning strategies for delayed on set monsoon

(AICRPDA, 1983). The research efforts made in this

scarcity region by introduction of safflower as a sole

crop in scarcity zone of M aharashtra ultimately

augmented the oilseed production. Contingency plans,

for each region was a conceptual approach unique from

AICRPDA project in developing location specific

contingent crop strategies.

The research, 1987 onwards, was focused on

evaluation of the most efficient crops and their varieties

for each agro climatic location. Most efficient crop

varieties have been identified based on a continuous

evaluation and screening both at research station

followed by farmers’ fields. With the base crop of 100

days duration, for intercropping, varieties of 140-150

days duration on deep moisture - retentive soils and

60-70 days duration on medium deep soil were highly

successful. Apool of germplasm of short duration under

exploited crops such as horse gram has been screened

and promising lines identified for increasing cropping

intensity by sequence/ intercrop. In case of plant

density, the average productivity over varying plant

densities is positively correlated with sustainability in

most of the situations. Sustainability in yield due to

plant density is interacting with crop, variety, season,

rainfall, soil type and fertilizer. When fertilizer was

applied the sustainability index started decreasing at a

lower plant density compared to the situation where

fertilizer was applied at a higher plant density. Another

interesting point is that in the case of post-rainy season

sorghum, the sustainability started decreasing at a lower

plant density level in the case of variety (M-35-1)

compared to hybrid (CSH-8R) grown on shallow (>30

cm) soils. With sufficient rainfall (usually > 800 mm)

double cropping was possible and out of the two crops,

one could be short duration (60-70 days, usually

legume), and another could be long duration of 110-

120 days (usually cereal). At Phulbani, Rewa and

Ranchi, sequential cropping was very much possible

while with more success in selection of suitable crops

and their sequence. Short duration (60-70 days)

legumes such as greengram/blackgram or early cowpea

followed by 100-120 days cereal crop was an ideal

sequential cropping system while one cereal in the

sequence was useful to meet grain and fodder

requirements. In regions where rainfall was more than

1000 mm (Rewa and Ranchi), upland rice-chickpea/

lentil was a proven sequence. Successful intercropping

was when the optimum plant population of base crop

through the row arrangements while maintaining the

plant density of companion crop/inter crop near optimal

(range could be 75 -100%). At Hyderabad, in shallow

soils sorghum + pigeonpea (2:1) performed

better

with yield advantage (both grain and fodder) up to 20%

under varied rainfall situations. Pigeonpea had been

found to be unique and highly preferred component

crop across production systems (AICRPDA, 2003).

The studies conducted across AICRPDA

centers showed that 1 kg of fertilizer N produced

additional grain yield varying from 4.3 to 38 kg in a

variety o f crops (rice, sorghum , pearlm illet,

ra/usorghum, wheat, safflower and mustard) grown

under different rainfall environments and diverse soil

types. Integrated nutrient management (EMM) studies

have established the value of a number of naturally

occurring nutrients containing (organic manures) and

generating (biofertilizers) sources to augment overall

nutrient turnovers for soil fertility management. Green

manure was found to be a dependable source of several

plant nutrients. Typically, it could meet half the N

requirements of a crop.

Inclusion of legumes in a

rotation benefitted the succeeding crop equivalent to

10 30 kgN ha1. Short duration legumes such as cowpea

benefitted much more. INM in combination with

legume based crop is recommended for higher

productivity.

INM system s, besides nutrient

supplementation, enhanced soils’ ability to hold

additional water and produced resulted in favorable soil

biological interactions. Schemes to generate green

manure in a non-competitive way during the no cropping

season and bund farming have been worked out. This

has opened up a new vista to make green manuring a

viable option. Long term INM trials conducted for more

than 35 seasons at AICRPDA centers indicated that

fertilizer cost can be reduced by substitution of fertilizer

with organics. In most of the situations, the yield

sustainability was higher when the recommended dose

of fertilizer was applied. Further, in case of cereals,

higher sustainability was obtained when the

recommended dose of nutrients was applied through

chemical sources. In case of oilseeds, however, the

recommended dose applied half through chemical

fertilizer and the other half through organic source led

to higher sustainability values. Available nitrogen,

organic carbon and phosphorus content in soil were

increased with organic fertilizer application. Application

of crop residues in combination with chemical fertilizer

resulted in higher sustainable yield and maintained higher

levels of nitrogen, phosphorus and organic carbon.

Green leaf manure proved promising in increasing the

sustainability in yield and improving the organic carbon,

infiltration rate and hydraulic conductivity of the soil.

The rainwater haresting in farm ponds and

efficient utilization through supplemental/protective

irrigation to annual crops and fruit crops proved to be

beneficial. Harvesting runoff water and storage in farm

ponds could be a distinct possibility in red soils of

Karnataka. Ponds may be 200 m3 for 0.6 ha catchment

2018

Dryland Agricultural in India

509

and 2000 m3 for 6 to 7 ha catchment areas. Nearly

50% of the stored water can be used for protective

irrigation. Under severe drought, at Arjia, protective

irrigation increased yields by 377 over 1004 kg/ha in

maize. During the experimental period of 7 seasons,

there was a total failure of crop in one year and drought

occurred in 3 seasons at Arjia. In medium deep black

soils of Bijapur, Bellary, and Solapur, the effect of one

minimal irrigation (4 to 6 cm) on the yield of rabi

sorghum was phenomenal. In red lateritic soils of

Bangalore, the late sown crops such as finger millet or

long duration crops such as chillies or cowpea sown in

May are likely to be more benefited by one protective

irrigation of 5 cm than two irrigations of 2.5 cm each

(AICRPDA, 2003).

In the Post 1985 era, the dryland research was

much important due to shift from field crops to dry

land horticulture plantation, particularly in shallow and

sloppy lands. Techniques for rehabilitation of marginal

lands for planting annual and perennial crops by

restructuring the planting site were devised through

fertility improvement by addition of tank silt,

composted/farmyard manure, black soil etc. With

planting site improve-ment, a noticeable improvement

in crop establishment, survival and yielding ability

occurred. Studies at CRIDA have indicated that ring

weeding and in situ moisture conservation besides micro

site improvement were essential to improve the survival

of fruit tree seedlings in dry lands. Water supply to the

plant can be improved by water harvesting using situ

or ex situ system.

The opportunities for crop diversification

were explored. Based on the research information for

the past 40 years, a new approach was identified for

horizontal and vertical diversifications potentials of

rainfed cropping systems in typical rainfed districts in

India, which were given for five major crop based

production systems viz. rice, oilseeds, pulses, cotton

and coarse cereals under the Sim pson crop

diversification indices of 80-100%, 60-80%, 40-60%

and less than 40%, as well as under different soil

degradation status (Vittal and Ravindra Chary, 2007).

Studies on high value crops like at CRIDA and in other

organizations, m edicinal and dye crops (senna,

ashwagandha, dye crops etc) aromatic (lemon grass,

palmarosa, vetiver, basil etc.) and dye yielding (hidigo,

Bixa, Hernia etc) either sole or in intercropping systems

indicated a large scope for crop diversification with

these crops in dry land agriculture for risk minimization,

higher income and quality produce.

During 2001-2005, an entirely new approach

of Crop planning as per Soil-site suitability was

conceptualized under NATP-Mission Mode Project

on Land Use Planning for Management of Agricultural

Resources in Rainfed Agro ecosystem where in 400

interventions were demonstrated on 132 soil-sub groups

on varying topo-sequences in 16 micro-watersheds.

This provided much needed land use diversification

from the traditional rainfed land utilization and indicated

micro level variations of soils (phases of soil series)

and management practices on a topo-sequence are the

prime factors influencing land productivity which

increased from 30 to 50 per cent and in few cases

more than double. The soil-site suitability criteria were

developed for 41 field, horticulture and high value

crops.

Research on integrated fanning systems was

started at AICRPDA centers in 1990s (AICRPDA,

2003) and also under NATP-PSR and NATP-IVLP-

TAR projects during 1999-2006. At Kovilpatti, an IFS

model for 0.4ha comprising sorghum+greengram (0.16

ha) + maize + cowpea (0.08 ha) + clusterbean /senna

(0.04 ha) + poultry (20 broiler birds) +Kannigo&is (4)

+ Vembur sheep (6) + dairy - cross bred cow (1) was

suggested which could give more sustainability with

higher net returns, employment generation and increase

in soil fertility. Other IFS modules suggested were,

agroforestry+sheep based IFS at Anantapur, cereals,

pulses and oilseeds based IFS modules for 1 ha at

Hyderabad and most importantly at Arjia viable IFS

modules were developed with the components of crop,

small ruminants, agroforestry systems for small and

marginal holdings, which were included in National

Livelihood Mission programme in Bhilwara district

(Rajasthan).

The benchm ark Perm anent M anurial

Experiments initiated at 18 Centers in 1984 across

diverse rainfed cropping systems serving as platforms

for intensive research on carbon sequestration, nutrient

use efficiency, development of data sets for C modeling,

LCA and overall soil quality index development. The

long term experim ents on tillage and nutrient

management at 19 Centers since 2000, formed the basis

for developm ent of resource conservation and

Conservation Agriculture (CA) research initiative in

rainfed production systems under ICAR-CRP. These

outcome of these experiments led to developing soil

quality indicators for diverse dryland agro ecologies

and production systems. A summary Oof the major

research achievements from the above 11 centers are

briefed below.

Dryland Agriculture Research: Salient

Achievements

The following 13 AICRPDA centers are located

in dryland districts identified under DPAP/DDP

programme in the country.

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Sammi Reddy et al.,

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Mean Annual Rainfall (mm) /Climate

AICRPDA centers (MARE)

500- 750 / Semiarid hot dry

Anantapuram (554) ;Arjia (656); Bijapur (595);

Kovilpatti (723); Rajkot (590); Solapur (732)

750 -1000 / Semiarid hot moist

Bengaluru (926); Parbani (901); Akola (824)

1000-1250 / Sub humid hot dry

Ranchi/Chianki (1179); Rewa (1088)

ResourceCharacterization

Six drought regions identified based on

natureandextent o f drought, climate crop

season and soil type viz. drought regions

identified viz.DR-I: Chronic Drought in Arid

Marginal Rainy Season Aridisols); DR-II:

Chronic Drought Regionin Arid Sub-marginal

Rainy Season Vertisols and Alfisols); DR-III:

Chronic Drought Region in Dry Semi-arid

Delayed Rainy Season; Vertisols and Alfisols);

DR-IV: Chronic Droughtin Dry Semi-arid Post

Rainy Season V ertic/V ertisols); DR-V:

Ephemeral Droughtin Wet Semi-arid Rainy

Season Vertisols/Alfisols); DR-VI: Apparent

Droughtin Dry Sub-humid Alfisols/Oxisols

Regions).

Del ineated Rainfed Agro economic zones: For

developing Agri entrepreneurships network

with crop diversification and value addition in

rainfed regions (CRIDA Vision2030).

Characterized Rain water harvesting o f

potential zones in the agro-climatic domains

of AICRPDA centers.

Rainwater Management

Developed location specific in sit moisture

conservation practices for diverse dryland

agro- ecologies based on rain fall and soil

types viz. deeptillage,compartmental bunding,

inter -plot rain water harvesting techniques,

conservation furrow, broadbed & furrows,

raised bed & furrow system, ridges & furrows,

tiedridges, zingterracing, mulching techniques,

etc.

Ex-siturain water management: Based on

catchment- storage-command area relationship,

standardized rainwater harvesting structures

viz. farm pond and other WHSs for diverse

rainfall and soil types and efficient rain water

utilization for higher water productivity.

Developed location-specific groundwater

recharging techniques/Models at Parbhani,

Bijapur, Bangalore and Rajkot centers with

efficient filtering mechanisms.

Cropping Systems

Identified potential cropping systems and

drought vulnerability based on rainfall and

soil types: For rainfall zones of 350-650mm,

in Alfisols, shallow Vertisols, Aridisols and

Entisols with growing season of 15 weeks,

single cropping; for rainfall zones 350- 650mm,

indeep Aridisols and Inceptisols, with growing

season of 20 weeks. Either rainy or post- rainy

season crop and in deep vertisols, post-rainy

season cropping for rainfall zones of 650mm -

800mm, in deep Vertisols, Alfisols and Entisols,

with growing season of 30 weeks, double

cropping; and >1100 mm rainfall zones, indeep

Alfisols/Oxisols, with >30 weeks growing

season, double cropping is possible.

Soil Management

Identified emerging nutrient deficiencies in

rainfedproduction systems:

INM studies have established that 50% of

recommendedN through organic sources and

50% ofN through inorganic sources along with

micro nutrients and bio fertilizers augment

edoverall nutrient turnovers for soil fertility

management. Green manure could meet half

the N requirements o a crop. Inclusion of

legumes in arotation produced benefit to the

succeeding crop equivalent to 10-30 kgNha-1.

Characterized soil organic carbon stocks in

rainfed production systems: Organic C stocks

varied Vertisols, Inceptisols, Alfisols, Aridisols

in decreasing order. Inorganic C and total C

stocks were larger in Vertisols than in other

soil types. Soil organic C stocks decreased with

depth in the profile, where as in organic C

stocks increased with depth. Among the

production systems, soybean, maize and

groundnut-based systems showed greater

organic C stocks than other production

systems.

Carbon sequestration strategies identifiedfor

diverse rainfed production systems:

Conjunctive use of chemical fertilizers and

organic manure resulted in higher sustainable

yield index (SYI) over unfertilized control and

2018

Dryland Agricultural in India

511

sole application of either chemical fertilizers

ororganic manures. The mean annual C input

were recorded maximum in soybean system

followed that in rice and groundnut systems.

The soil organic carbon content increased from

0.23% to 0.39% at Anantapur, 0.23% to 0.39%

at Bangalore, 0.36% to 0.56% at Solapur due

to different INM practices.

The carbon foot prints (TgCE ha-lyear-1)

were higher in cereals cropping systems

followed by oil seed and pulse systems.The

carbon foot prints per unit amount of yield (Tg

CE Mg-1 grain) showed higher for rice (2.8800)

- lentil (6.1463) sequence in Inceptisols.

Identified key Soil quality indicators in

diverse rainfed agro ecologies: Organic

carbon (OC), available N, P, K, S, exchangeable

Ca, Mg and DTPA extractable Zn were emerged

as key chemical soil quality indicators in most

of the rainfed soils. Among these to biological

and physical soil quality indicators,

dehydrogenize activity, microbial biomass

carbon and labile carbon, bulk density and mean

weight diameter (soil structure) figured as

predominant indicators.

Micronutrientresearchinrainfed production

systems: AtArjia, recommended dose ofN&P

with all limiting nutrients (Zn,BandMg)

gavehighestmaize grain yield(2474 kg/ha);at

Bengaluru, rec.NandK+ Lime @,300 kg/ha +

M gC03 @ 150kg/ha + Borax @ 10kg/ha

recorded ahigher finger millet mean grain yield

of 3580 Kg/ha; in sorghum at Kovilpatti,

maximum grain yield of 1624 kg/ha with40 kg

N/ha +2 0kg P/ha + 25 kg ZnS04/ha.

Identified foliar spray o f potassium for

drought irrigation: Multi-location experiments

on diverse soil types and crops viz., Solapur,

Maharashtra {rabi sorghum,Vertisol); Arjia,

Rajasthan (maize, Inceptisols); Viswanath

Chariali, Assam (toria, Inceptisols); Rajkot,

Gujarat (groundnut, Vertic Inceptisols) and

Jam nagar, G ujarat (chickpea,V ertisols)

indicated, spray of 1% KN03 @ 35 and 55

days after sowing (DAS) in rabi sorghum, etc.

Quantified tank silt application indicated

increased yields by 230% compared ton on

tank silt applied sites at Anantapur, Arjia,

Bangalore and Solapur centers. ADSS

developed for quantified tank silt application.

Low till farming strategies identified:

Conventional till age was superior at Bangalore

for finger millet under semi-arid Alfisols; for

pearl millet under semi-arid Vertisols of

Solapur;for rice under moist sub humid Alfisols/

Oxisols of Phulbani; soybean under moist sub-

humid Vertisols of Rewa and groundnut under

semi-arid Alfisols of Anantapur.

Small farm mechanization in dry land agriculture

D esigned, developed, evaluated and

popularized cost effective and energy efficient

tools, farm implements/machinery for various

agricultural operations including rain water

m anagem ent in dryland crops. Farm

mechanization reduced 20-59% operation cost,

saved 45-64% in operation time, saved 31-

38% seed & fertilizer and increased

productivity of dryland crops by 18- 53% .

Real-Time Contingency Planning

Conceptualized in AICRPDA since 2010 as

two pronged approach i.e preparedness and

implementation to cope with delayed onset of

monsoon and inseason drought with various

real-time soil, crop, nutrient, rainwater and

energy management interventions.

Identified suitable crops and varieties to cope

with delayed on set o f monsoon: Forex, at

Parbhani for 18 days delay, pigeonpea cv.

BDN711

Alternate Land Use Systems in dryland areas

Alternate land use systems, particularly dryland

horticulture and agri-horti systems were

identified for different rainfall zones and soil

types which included agri silvi culture, agri­

horticulture and silvi pasture systems: Aonlci +

finger millet/cow pea at Bangalore.

A3 x 3 Productive Farming Systems Matrix in

Rainfed Agriculture developed: Land

Capability based Productive Farming Systems

are identified for drought prone regions based

on land capability, rainfall, and soil orders and

the outcome of research information generated

at AICRPD Acenters.

Identified rainfed farming systems viz. at

Bangalore, crops + dairy + sheep + goat +

poultry + sericulture + piggery; at Kovilpatti

(TamilNadu) showed that crop + goat (4) +

poultry (20) + sheep (6) + dairy (1); at Bijapur

crops, horticulture, goat and poultry and at

A nantapur, sheep rearing (lO no.) and

groundnut cultivation (lha) and groundnut

cultivation (lha) +1 j ersey cow.

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Contribution to Dryland Agriculture Development

1974 - Integrated Dryland Development

Project

1977 - Desert Development Programme

1982 -Special programme on Integrated

Watershed Management

1984 - ICAR-Model Watershed Programme

30 model watersheds (500-1 OOOha), in 13

states were assigned to AICRPDA for

technological backstopping

1986 - with the success of Model watersheds,

Gol

launched

N ational

W atershed

Development Programmes in Rainfed Area

(NWDPRA) in 15 states

2000 onwards - Development of policy

instruments in rainwater harvesting and

management; vulnerability of agriculture to

climate change; contingency crop planning and

its im plem entation to tackle w eather

aberrations, etc. This has led to promulgation

of suitable policies by state governments for

their implementation in rainfed regions for the

benefit of the farmers. Policy on farm pond/

percolation tanks in A ndhra Pradesh,

Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka.

2011 onwards - technical backstopping to

preparation of District Agriculture Contingency

Plans for 643 districts in the country.

Contributed to preparation of Compensatory

rabi production plans during2014,2015,2016.

2016- Revised M anual on Drought

Management by DAC&FW, MoA & FW, Gol.

2014 onwards -Integration of doable rainfed

technologies in State action plans under

National Missionon Sustainable Agriculture

(NM SA); M GNREGA, IWMP, RKVY,

NFSM, NHM; Dryland Farming Missions of

Karnataka, Maharashtra and Comprehensive

District Agriculture/Land Development Plans

of various districts.

Further, contributed to policy formulation by

working with the Planning Commission,

National Rainfed Area Authority (NRAA),

M oA & FW & M oR D , Gol.

Dryland Agriculture Research: Challenges Ahead

Multiple abiotic stresses are a key challenge

for dryland crops in future. In the same season, crops

can face drought in early part and water logging in the

later due to erratic rainfall distribution. Heat stress is

another factor which could influence crop yields

particularly during rabi season. An important area of

CRIDA’s work is to tap the diversification of dryland

regions with region-specific models of integrated

farming systems including livestock and fisheries. Such

systems will help in cushioning the stakeholders against

risks (drought) which are becoming more frequent in

recent years. Opportunities also exist for diversifying

to fruit, fodder, fuel wood and tim ber crops.

Opportunities exist in the form of small holders taking

up collective farming of single crops or form producer

companies. Crop simulation modeling is being done to

understand behaviour of crops in both current and

future environments. Work is being done to integrate

other components like natural resources, livestock,

poultry and fisheries sectors evolving a Systems

Modeling approach. This helps in identifying sustainable

integrated fanning system models to cope of the drought

situations.

The era of post genomics has ushered in with

vast knowledge about the genome sequences of various

crop species during recent years. It is now increasingly

easier to sequence and map genomes, giving scientists

access to infonnation. Nevertheless, converting this vast

information to field application has remained a bottle

neck. CRIDA is developing next generation research

tools which will be applied to deep probe plant function

and performance, under controlled and field conditions.

Under the National Initiative on Climate Resilient

Agriculture (NICRA), scientists are working on high

throughput precision phenol typing. Large number of

germplasm lines has been collected, characterized for

drought tolerance in rice, maize, pigeonpea, tomato,

black gram and green gram. High throughput screening

and phenol typing of these germplasm lines is being

undertaken using state of the art facilities like Plant

Phenomics, Rainout shelters, Temperature Gradient

Chambers for drought and heat tolerance across several

partner institutes under NICRA. State of the art phenol

typing platform with automated non destructive imaging

based scan analysis of crop growth and development

is going to speed up breeding for drought and other

abiotic stresses.

Dryland Developmental Schemes/Projects

After independence five year plans were

started, all the five year plans gave considerable

importance to the creation of additional irrigation

potential in the country. When five year planning started

in our country, the irrigation potential was 23 million

hectares which included 10 million hectares from major

and medium irrigation works and 13 million hectares

from the minor irrigation works. Even after fully

realizing the irrigation potential, nearly half of the

cultivated area in the country will remain rainfed. These

regions host bulk of the rural poor (Bantilan et al.,

2006). Further, the growth in irrigated agriculture,

mostly based on what is known as ‘green revolution’

technologies, has either slowed down or stagnated and

2018

Dryland Agricultural in India

513

the associated environmental costs are increasingly

becoming evident. It was shown that growth in GDP

originating from agriculture is much more effective in

reducing poverty than the GDP growth outside

agriculture. It was also observed that ‘additional

spending in many of the rainfed areas/dryland raises

far more poor people above the poverty line than does

additional investment in irrigated areas (Fan and Hazell,

2000).

Considering the observation that the green

revolution has largely bypassed the fragile rainfed /

dryland regions, that the livelihoods of millions of rural

population continue to be dependent on dryland

agriculture and also that there is a need to broaden the

base of agricultural growth beyond irrigated regions and

crops, it becomes imperative to take appropriate policies

and measures for enhancing sustainability of agriculture

in these regions. Further, the emphasis of the current

economic development policy on inclusiveness also

requires that the rainfed agriculture development

receives due attention. After independence several

programmes were started for conservation and

management of natural resources in drylands/rainfed

areas.

Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP)

It is the “earliest area development programme”

launched by the Central Government in 1973-74 to

tackle the special problems faced by these fragile areas

which are constantly affected by severe drought

conditions.

In 1977-78, D esert D evelopm ent

Programme (DDP) was launched for hot desert areas

of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and cold desert areas

of Jammu & Kaslnnir and Himachal Pradesh. Similarly,

in 1989, Integrated W atershed D evelopm ent

Programme (IWDP) was launched under the aegis of

N ational W asteland D evelopm ent Board for

development of wastelands on watershed basis.

Common Guidelines for Watershed Development, 2008

were issued and made effective from 1.4.2008. The

three watershed programmes of the Department of

Land Resources namely DPAP, DDP and IWDP were

consolidated during 2009 as a com prehensive

programme titled ‘Integrated Watershed Management

Programme (IWMP) and was implemented under

Common Guidelines issued by National Rainfed Area

Authority. However, now this has become a part of

newly launched programme titled “Pradhan Mantri

Krishi Sinchayee Yojana” (PMKSY).

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment

Guarantee Act

National Rural Employment Guarantee Act

later renamed as the “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural

Employment Guarantee Act” (MGNREGA) is a social

security measure that aims to guarantee the ‘right to

work’. It aims at enhancing livelihood security in rural

areas by providing at least 100 days of wage

employment in a financial year to every household

whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual

work. Another aim of MGNREGA is to create durable

assets such as roads, canals, ponds, wells, etc.

Employment is to be provided within 5 km of an

applicant’s residence and minimum wages are to be

paid at regular interval. If work is not provided within

15 days of request, applicants are entitled to an

unemployment allowance. MGNREGA is to be

implemented mainly by gram panchayats (GPs). The

involvement of contractors is banned. Labour-intensive

tasks involving earth work like creating infrastructure

for water harvesting, drought relief and flood control

are preferred. Apart from providing economic security

and creating rural assets, the programme is helping

in protecting the environment, empowering rural

wom en,

reducing rural-urban m igration and

fostering social equity.

National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture

(NMSA)

C onservation of natural resources in

conjunction with development of rainfed agriculture

holds the key to meet burgeoning demands for food

grain in the country. Towards this end. National Mission

for Sustainable A griculture (NM SA) has been

formulated for enhancing agricultural productivity

especially in rainfed areas focusing on integrated

farming, water use efficiency, soil health management

and synergizing resource conservation. NMSA derives

its mandate from Sustainable Agriculture Mission which

is one of the eight Missions outlined under National

Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). The

strategies and programme of actions (POA) outlined in

the Mission Document, that was accorded ‘ in principle’

approval by Prime M inister’s Council on Climate

Change (PMCCC) aims at promoting sustainable

agriculture through a series of adaptation measures

focusing on ten key dimensions encompassing Indian

agriculture namely; ‘Improved crop seeds, livestock

and fish cultures’, ‘Water Use Efficiency’, ‘Pest

Management’, ‘Improved Farm Practices’, ‘Nutrient

Management’, ‘Agriculturalinsurance’, ‘Credit support’,

‘Markets’, ‘Access to Information’ and ‘Livelihood

diversification’. During XII Five Year Plan, these

measures are being embedded and main streamed into

ongoing/proposed Missions/ Progammes/ Schemes of

Dept, of Agriculture & Cooperation (DAC) through a

process of restructuring and convergence. NMSA

architecture has been designed by converging,

consolidating and subsuming all ongoing as well as

newly proposed activities/programmes related to

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Sammi Reddy et al.,

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sustainable agriculture with a special emphasis on soil

& water conservation, water use efficiency, soil health

management and rainfed area development. Also NMSA

aims at promoting location specific improved agronomic

practices through soil health management, enhanced

water use efficiency, judicious use of chemicals, crop

diversification, progressive adoption of integrated

farming systems and approaches like crop-sericulture,

agro forestry, fish farming, etc. The sub-components

of NMSA are soil health management, soil health card

scheme, organic farming, micro irrigation and rainfed

area development

Soil Health Management

Soil health management aims at improving

nutrient availability in desired limits to enhance crop

productivity which is the major technological challenge

for ensuring food security and sustaining rural

development. Plant nutrition management is also

essential to sustain and enhance crop productivity to

meet the demand for food and raw materials and to

maintain the quality of land and water resources. To

ensure soil health, accurate in ventorization of soil

resources is a prerequisite. Soil health can be improved

through several site and soil-specific management

options.

Soil health card scheme

The GOI has launched Soil Health Card

Scheme on 19.02.2015 with an objective to issue soil

health cards to farmers covering all the land holdings

within a period of three years. The farmers will be

covered once in every three years. As per the guidelines

of GOI the sharing pattern of funds for implementation

of scheme during 2014-16 was 75:25, from 2015-16

the sharing pattern of funds was revised to 50:50.

Rainfed Area Development (RAD)

Drought prone areas are characterized by

inadequate and erratic rainfall coupled with high evapo­

transpiration rate, eroded soils and high frequency of

drought. It is necessary to provide agriculture based

income generating opportunities and sustaining the

rainfed agriculture through optimum utilization of natural

resources and resources created through various

interventions. In this context, RAD component has

special significance to manage the drought. The sub­

components of RAD are Integrated Farming Systems

(IFS) and implementing the in situ soil and water

conservation activities like: Contour Bunding, Graded

Bunding, Gully Plugging, Nala Bunds, Terracing,

Contour Trenching, etc.

Organic Farming

Promotion of organic farming is an ongoing

project under RKVY andNMSAfrom2013-14 and in

operation under three components:

1. Area Expansion under Organic fanning with capacity

building through Trainings and Exposure Visits

2. Establishment of Bio fertilizer Production Units

3. Introduction of new scheme for promotion of Natural

Farming

Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY)

Govt, of India launched Central Assistance

Scheme i.e., Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY)

during XI five year plan period to provide incentive to

states for increasing investments in Agriculture and Allied

Sectors. The RKVY funds would be provided to the

States as 100% grant by the Central Government. From

2015-16 onwards these are revised with only 50%

support from central and the state has to put the

matching 50% budget. The components/ activities

eligible for development as part of RKVY are:

Integrated development of major food crops

(for inputs like seed, production of breeder

seed, seed treatment, farmers field schools,

farmers training etc)

Agriculture mechanization (individual or

custom hiring basis)

Activities for soil health management - soil

health cards, micro nutrient demos, etc.

Development of rainfed fanning systems in and

outside watershed areas

IPM schemes

Promoting extension services

Activities for promoting horticulture production

Animal husbandry and fisheries activities

Study tour of fanners

Production of organic inputs and bio-fertilizers

and marketing

Sericulture

National Food Security Mission (NFSM)

The National Food Security Mission scheme

was launched by Government of India during XI Plan

and continued during XII Plan. Under National Food

Security Mission, Government of India has envisaged

certain objectives during the XII Plan. Coarse Cereals

including maize and commercial crops based cropping

systems (cotton, jute and sugarcane) is part of NFSM

during 2014-15. Financial allocations under rice, pulses,

coarse cereals and commercial crops for the year 2015-

lb are part of the mission. National Mission on Oilseeds

and Oil Palm (NMOOP), MM-I for Oilseeds and MM-

II for Oil Palm was merged in National Food Security

2018

Dryland Agricultural in India

515

Mission scheme from 1st April 2014. MM-I on

Oilseeds programme is to increase oilseed production

and productivity. NMOOP had different components

like farm implements and machinery, plant protection

chemicals and weedicides, supply of micronutrients,

bio inputs, micro irrigation, soil amendments, oilseed

demonstrations and trainings.

National Horticultural Mission

A National Horticulture Mission was launched

in 2005-06 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme to

promote holistic growth of the horticulture sector

through an area based regionally differentiated

strategies. The scheme has been subsumed as a part of

Mission for Integration Development of Horticulture

(MIDH) during 2014-15. National Horticulture Mission

is a centrally sponsored scheme in which Government

of India provided 100% assistance to the state mission

during the year 2005-06 and later got revised during

XI plan, the assistance from Government of India will

be 85% w ith 15% contribution by the State

Government.

It provides assistance for Area Expansion,

Rejuvenation, Post Harvest, Marketing and

Processing, Human resource Development etc,

which will help the all round development of

horticulture in the State

To provide holistic growth of the horticulture

sector through an area based regionally

differentiated strategies which include research,

technology promotion, extension, post harvest

management, processing and marketing, in

consonance with comparative advantage of

each State/region and its diverse agro-climatic

feature.

To enhance horticulture production to improve

nutritional security and income support to farm

households.

To establish convergence and synergy among

multiple on-going and planned programmesfor

horticulture development.

To prom ote, develop and dissem inate

technologies, through a seamless blend of

traditional wisdom and modern scientific

knowledge.

To create opportunities for employment

generation for skilled and unskilled persons,

especially unemployed youth.

Pradhan MantriKrishi Sinchayee Yojana

Government of India launched a programme

“Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY)

in 2015 and is committed to accord high priority to

water conservation and its management. PMKSY has

been formulated with the vision of extending the

coverage o f irrigation to every farm land

‘H arK hetK oPani’ and im proving w ater use

efficiency ‘More Crop per Drop’ in a focused manner

with end to end solution on source creation, distribution,

management, field application and extension activities.

PMKSY has been formulated amalgamating ongoing

schem es, viz., A ccelerated Irrigation B enefit

Program m e (AIBP) of the M inistry o f W ater

Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation

(MoWR, RD&GR), Integrated Watershed Management

Programme (IWMP ) of Department of Land Resources

(DoLR) and the On Farm Water Management (OFWM)

of Department of Agriculture and Cooperation, Ministry

of agriculture and Farmers Welfare. In rainfed areas

under this scheme the following activities are being

promoted:

Water harvesting structures to be constructed

such as check dams, nala bund, farm ponds,

tanks etc.

Capacity building, entry point activities, ridge

area treatment, drainage line treatment, soil and

m oisture conservation, nursery raising,

afforestation,

horticulture,

pasture

development, livelihood activities for the asset­

less persons and production system & micro

enterprises for small and marginal farmers etc.

Effective rainfall management like field

bunding, contour bunding/trenching, staggered

trenching, land leveling, mulching, etc.

Repair, restoration and renovation of water

bodies; strengthening carrying capacity of

traditional water sources, construction of rain

water harvesting structures (Jal Sanchay);

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yoj ana

Crop Insurance

For the benefit of the farming community,

G overnm ent has taken proactive steps and is

implementing the scheme “National Crop Insurance

Programme” (NCIP) comprising two components i.e.,

1. Modified National Agricultural Insurance Scheme

(MNAIS) 2. Weather-Based Crop Insurance Scheme

(WBCIS) from kharif 2014 with many more farmer-

friendly features. The scheme has been re-shaped and

a now it is known as Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima

Yojana and was launched during January 2016 in which

the burden of premium on farmer has been eased out.

The premium is 2% of the sum assured for kharif crops

while it is 1.5% for rabi. The rate for commercial crops

like cotton and other horticultural crops is 5% of

insurance sum assured. The scheme is supported by

technology backstopping for timely disbursement of

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Sammi Reddy el al.,

AAJ65

the claims. This is one of the best instruments for the

farmers to transfer the risk associated with drought

and other natural calamities.

National Innovations in Climate Resilient

Agriculture (NICRA)

The ICAR launched a Network Project on

Climate Change in 2004 with 15 centers which were

expanded later covering 23 centers across the country.

In 2011, the ICAR launched a mega project called

“National Innovations in Climate Resilient Agriculture”

(NICRA) with four main modules: strategic research,

technology demonstration, knowledge management and

capacity building. Technology demonstration was taken

up in the farmer’s fields in a participatory manner to

make the farmers self-reliant for adaptation under

changing climate. These climate resilient villages are

now serving as models and also as learning sites for

up-scaling and expanding to other parts of the district.

D em onstration of available locations specific

technologies related to natural resource management,

crop production, livestock & fisheries and institutional

interventions is the primary objective for enhancing

adaptation gains and mitigation potential for building

clim ate resilience. Technology dem onstration

component (TDC) under NICRA is being implemented

in 121 vulnerable districts of the country through 121

Krishi Vigyan Kendra’s (KVKs) spread across the

country in 28 States and 1 Union Territory through

eleven Zonal Project Directorates, now known as

ATARIs. The National Agricultural Research System

(NARS) in general and the institutes are addressing the

research needs of rainfed agriculture and developed a

number of technologies over years. These can be

broadly categorized into improved crop varieties

(resistant to drought or moisture stress, high yielding,

resistant to pests and diseases, etc.), crop management

(adjusting time of sowing, interculture, etc), resource

management (off-season tillage, in-situ conservation,

rain water harvesting practices, etc.) and nutrient and

pest management technologies. Adoption of these

technologies in isolation and in combination with one

another has shown significant yield gains. The

contribution of changes in yields over years to the

changes in production reflects the contribution of

technology.

Dryland Agriculture and Policy Bias

The circumstances at the time of independence

rightly demanded that food production be increased

considerably to meet the acute food shortages that the

country was facing. The initial increases in food grain

production came from the expansion of area cultivated.

The real thrust to production came in the form of green

revolution which was a result of the efforts of the

National Agricultural Research System, investments

made in irrigation infrastructure, extension efforts of

the departments of agriculture of state governments,

favourable policy making and more importantly the

diligence of the farming community. This growth in

production led by productivity gains was largely based

on the use of high yielding crop varieties, intensive use

of chemical fertilizers, irrigation and plant protection

chemicals. Though such technology was observed to

be scale-neutral, it was not neutral to access to resources

and thus bypassed many farmers who do not have

access to resources and many harsh environments

where the access to irrigation is limited and the soils

are highly degraded. And the development of HYVs

for rainfed less favored areas is difficult and the adoption

of such varieties is hampered by the diversity in growing

conditions of these regions (Fan and Chan-kang., 2004).

The process of such an agricultural development model,

most of the policy making, investments and institutions

for supporting agriculture was built around the

requirements of the input intensive irrigated agriculture

model. Most of subsidies like those on chemical

fertilizers, irrigation water, institutional credit and price

support largely went to the farmers growing irrigated

crops and the farmers growing rainfed crops did not

have such support. The policies related to procurement

and public distribution system also favoured the two

cereals namely rice and wheat and hence most of the

benefits of such policies were enjoyed by a few states

contributing to the national food grain stocks. Except

the programmes related to watershed development,

there is no major programme that addresses to the

specific needs of rainfed agriculture in the country. The

investments on watershed development are at present

around Rs. 12, 000/ha which is much less than what is

being spent on creation o f‘formal’ irrigation facilities.

As mentioned earlier, the very nature of dryland

agriculture is highly diverse and is very different from

the irrigated agriculture. The problems are variable

across space and over time within a given location.

The current models of agricultural extension system

do not fully match with the requirements of promoting

dryland agriculture. The extension system should have

the capability of guiding the farmers in optimally utilizing

the natural resources available in the region rather than

limiting themselves to see that a few critical inputs are

made available to the farmers. The research and

extension systems should work in close liaison so that

technologies are adapted to the local needs as a

prescriptive model is least likely to work in dryland

agriculture. The extension systems have to work with

farmer groups rather than with individual farmers as it

is not possible to have technologies and systems in

2018

Dryland Agricultural in India

517

place for optimum utilization of natural resources at

the scale of an individual land holding.

Emerging promises

Recognizing the specific needs of dryland

agriculture, there have been several attempts to address

the challenges of raising productivity of rainfed

agriculture in the country by a number of organizations

from the government, civil society and various other

organizations like international donors. What is common

across such successful interventions that had a positive

effect in productivity, incomes and status of natural

resources is that they forged partnerships with

institutions that have different strengths to be harnessed

in cohesion and provided the necessary technological,

institutional and capital support. M any of the

interventions that are recommended for sustainable

growth in rainfed agriculture revolve around soil and

water conservation, integrated nutrient management,

timely availability of inputs, timely farm operations,

linkage to markets, etc,. Such interventions are both

knowledge intensive and labour intensive and often

mobilization of community around addressing the

problems becomes a necessary condition. This ability

to mobilize the community was also identified as one

of the key contributors to the successful implementation

of watershed development and livelihood projects in

the country.

Research and Policy Needs in Dryland

Agriculture

Dryland agriculture is synonymous with risky

agriculture as production is dependent on monsoon rains

known to be inadequate, erratic and undependable. The

productivity levels are not only low but are also highly

variable which act as an impediment to investment by

the resource-poor farmers. Climatic risk is manifested

in terms of incidence of droughts, floods and high intra­

season variability in rainfall. Hence, risk - climatic and

other forms of risk - remains a key challenge to the

researchers and policy makers. A dissection of risk points

to two basic factors - poor biophysical capacity of soils

in terms of nutrients, organic matter, water holding

capacity and low availability of water. The generic

nature of these problems is more or less adequately

understood and recognized. However, what and how

to address these issues in varied situations is an important

challenge that deserves the attention of all concerned

in the short term. There has been ample evidence of

beneficial effects of improving organic matter through

such approaches as INM on the levels and stability of

crop yields. Similarly, the potential economic benefits

from rain water harvesting at farm level has been well

demonstrated. Translating this evidence into wide

spread adoption of the relevant practices constitutes

the challenge for short and medium term.

CONCLUSION

Sustainable agriculture policy should aim at

promoting technically sound, economically viable,

environmentally non-degrading and socially acceptable

use of country’s natural resources - land, water and

genetic endowments. The processes of technology

development and transfer, policy making related to

agriculture in general and dryland agriculture in particular

and input and service delivery systems are to be made

more proactive, cohesive, integrated and flexible in

order to make dryland agriculture viable and

sustainable. It should be recognized that the critical

problems of dryland agriculture are different from those

of irrigated agriculture and therefore need different

solutions and hence a different approach. The approach

must be able to deal with the complexity and diversity

of the dryland environments. Accordingly, the solutions

are bound to be location specific and replicability and

scalability are not easy to ensure in dryland agriculture.

Ecosystem services provided by Dryland/rainfed regions

or crops should be recognized by policy making and

programme form ulation. Investments are to be

enhanced, targeted and prioritized for diverse Dryland/

rainfed regions.

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Received on 11.01.2019 and revised on 17.01.2019